Electric scooter lighting: headlamps, taillights, turn signals, horn

Lighting on an electric scooter is not cosmetic, and it is not gamer-grade RGB mod. It is the regulatory floor that decides whether a 60 km/h driver will see you on an unlit junction two seconds before contact. Unlike batteries or motors, headlamps are hard to sell with numbers — manufacturers usually write just “LED headlight”, without lumen ratings, without a beam pattern, without a StVZO § 67 type-approval mark. This article covers the five categories of scooter lighting, how brake lights and turn signals actually work, what Germany’s eKFV § 5, UK rental-trial rules and the European EN 17128 standard require, and what to look for in the “lighting” line of any spec sheet.

Five lighting devices on an electric scooter

Every light on a modern electric scooter falls into one of five groups:

1. Front white headlamp — the main forward beam, lights the road and marks the front of the vehicle.
2. Rear red taillight — steady red glow rearward, marks the back of the vehicle.
3. Brake light — either the same taillight gone brighter on deceleration, or a separate lamp that flashes.
4. Turn signals — flashing amber lamps at the front and rear; absent on lower-end scooters, standard on the premium tier.
5. Reflectors — passive: red at the rear, yellow on the sides (on rims or tyre sidewalls), sometimes yellow at the front.

Audible signalling (bell or horn) is a separate regulated requirement but is not strictly “lighting”. We treat it in the regulatory-minimum section, because Germany’s eKFV ties it to the same equipment clauses.

1. Front headlamp: lumens, beam shape, mounting

The front headlamp on a scooter does two parallel jobs: it lights the road ahead, and it marks the vehicle’s silhouette so that oncoming drivers see a light source from hundreds of metres away. These are different optical problems, which is why lumen ratings span from 150 on budget urban scooters to 2000 on high-performance off-road models.

Typical lumen range. Reviewers treat 300 lm as the baseline for safe night riding, 800–1200 lm for serious commuters and off-road, and 2000 lm as the market ceiling — Electric Scooter Insider compares it to car headlights on full beam (around 2400 lm). Examples from the real market:

• NIU KQi2 Pro — 300 lm, iconic circular “halo” design tuned for urban visibility.
• Apollo City Pro / Apollo Go — around 500–1000 lm, integrated into the deck of the handlebar for a cut-off beam without dazzling oncoming traffic.
• Apollo Phantom V2 — 1000-lm class plus a vertical stem strip light for eye-level lateral visibility.
• Mantis King GT / SPLACH Titan — 1000 lm.
• NAMI Burn-E 2 / NAMI Klima — 2000 lm.
• Kaabo Wolf King GT / Wolf King GTR / Dualtron Storm — dual optics 2 × 1000 lm = 2000 lm, scattering angle around 120°.

Beam shape — cut-off vs flood. Budget units mostly use a symmetric “flood” beam (an even yellow-white patch in front of the wheel) which dazzles oncoming drivers as effectively as it lights the road. Premium optics (Apollo Phantom 2.0, NAMI Burn-E 2) use a cut-off lens with a sharp upper edge of the beam — like an automotive low-beam under UN/ECE Regulation No. 113. That cuts glare for sustained traffic and, in practice, lets the rider see the lane for longer — though the exact gain depends on the optics and mounting height (as a rule of thumb it is on the order of tens of percent, not a precise figure).

Mounting height. A low-mounted headlamp (deck or front fender, ~20 cm above the road) throws shadows from every pothole and curb — that actually helps you see surface defects. A high-mounted one (steering column, ~100 cm) gives a flatter beam but reveals less about the asphalt texture. Many current models (Apollo Phantom V2, NAMI Burn-E 2) split the lamp into two levels — main on the stem plus auxiliary on the deck or stem — combining surface relief with longer throw.

2. Rear lamp and red rear reflector

The rear lamp on an electric scooter is a steady red light visible from behind, plus a separate red rear reflector (Rückstrahler) in the same or adjacent position. Germany’s eKFV § 5 Abs. 1 Satz 3 explicitly allows combining them: “Schlussleuchte und Rückstrahler dürfen in einem Gerät verbaut sein” (taillight and reflector may be housed in one device).

Technically this is almost always a LED strip or block — bicycle-class rear lamps roughly span from a dozen to a few hundred lumens, so the exact figure depends on the model — driven by the same controller as the headlamp (they switch on synchronously through a single command on the display or handlebar). On sharing scooters (Lime Gen4, Bird Three, Voi) the rear lamp is active whenever the scooter is on — the operator does not leave the choice to the rider.

3. Brake light: steady glow vs flash

The brake light signals to road users behind that the scooter is decelerating. On e-scooters it comes in two distinct flavours that are worth distinguishing:

Steady glow. The same rear LED becomes 50–100% brighter whenever any brake is applied. Examples: Wolf King GT / Wolf King GTR — smoked taillight that “glows brighter (doesn’t flash)”; SPLACH Mukuta; NIU KQi2 Pro. This is closest to an automotive brake signal — drivers behind recognise it intuitively.

Flash. The taillight begins to strobe rapidly when brakes are applied. Examples: Mantis King GT — “flashes when braking”; SPLACH Titan — “taillights flash on braking”; SPLACH Turbo — “moonlight as brake lights”. Flashing is more attention-grabbing for peripheral vision, but in low-contrast daylight it can be confused with hazard lights or a stuck turn signal.

How brake-light triggering works. Three sensors are in play:

1. Mechanical brake-lever switch. A micro-switch in the brake lever closes when the lever is squeezed — the same signal that engages electronic regenerative braking. This is the fastest and most direct path; it is what serious manufacturers (NAMI, Apollo, Dualtron) use.
2. Throttle-release through the controller. The controller sees the throttle drop to zero and triggers the brake light as a “coasting” cue. This is the same signal that engages KERS regeneration on direct-drive hubs. Useful on descents where the rider is not touching the mechanical brake but the scooter is actively decelerating through regen.
3. Deceleration sensor. A platform-mounted accelerometer measures actual g-force, and triggers the brake light above some threshold (on the order of a few m/s²) regardless of cause. This is the most sophisticated path; on mass-market scooters it is rare (on L1e-class electric motorcycles it is standard).

The mechanical trigger gives zero latency. The controller trigger fires on regen-only decelerations. The accelerometer trigger is an academic ideal but has not scaled to scooters yet because of component cost and false triggers on rough surfaces.

4. Turn signals and lateral visibility

Turn signals on an e-scooter were a feature of $2000+ flagships in 2019–2021 (Apollo Phantom, NAMI Burn-E, Dualtron Storm). They are slowly descending into the mid-range now.

Implementation. Two buttons on the left grip (typically left-right plus a centre for hazards), or a button on the display. Standard flash frequency is around 1.5 Hz (90 cycles per minute, like UN/ECE Regulation No. 6 for cars). Some models also expose hazard lights — both indicators flash in sync.

Models that ship with turn signals as stock:

• NAMI Burn-E 2 / Burn-E 3 — indicators on the side and rear LED strips, plus a motorcycle-style horn.
• Apollo Phantom (V2 and later) — two control buttons on the left side of the bar, direction indicated on the display; turn signals operate only on the rear deck lights, no front indicators.
• Dualtron Storm Limited — front and rear indicators, plus separate deck lights.
• Kaabo Wolf King GT / Mantis King GT — flashing turn signals synced to the steering column at the front and the controller box at the rear.
• SPLACH Mukuta / SPLACH Turbo — integrated into stem and deck.

Models that don’t have turn signals as stock:

• Xiaomi M365 / Mi 4 Pro, Segway-Ninebot MAX G30, Apollo City (not Pro), NIU KQi2/3, Razor — no turn signals. The aftermarket sells clamp-on turn signal kits (Amazon and similar marketplaces list universal modules for Xiaomi + Ninebot G30 — roughly a few tens of dollars, depending on the seller).

Lateral visibility. eKFV § 5 Abs. 3 explicitly requires “seitliche Kennzeichnung… mit gelben Rückstrahlern nach beiden Seiten wirkend” — side marking with yellow reflectors visible from both sides — or continuous retro-reflective stripes on tyres or rims of front and rear wheels. That means every e-scooter legally sold in Germany must have smartphone-sized yellow reflectors on the rims or strips on the tyres. Off-road models often replace this with RGB deck under-glow LED strips (NAMI, Kaabo, SPLACH Titan), which formally do not satisfy eKFV § 5 — which is part of why off-road scooters never earn a Bauartgenehmigung (ABE) for German public roads.

5. Audible signalling: bell and horn

eKFV § 5 Abs. 1 in the 2019 wording requires “mindestens einer helltönenden Glocke” — at least one “bright-sounding bell”. The text explicitly forbids sirens or other acoustic devices that do not comply with UN/ECE Regulation No. 28 for category L3 (motorcycles).

In practice this lands in three shapes:

• Bicycle mechanical bell — the cheapest and most common option on entry-level scooters (Xiaomi M365, Segway-Ninebot MAX G30, NIU KQi2). Works without power. Loudness is on the order of 70–90 dB a couple of metres away, with a tonal sound of a few kilohertz (the exact figures vary by individual bell).
• Electric horn (e-horn) — a copy of the automotive horn. On premium (NAMI Burn-E 2 — “motorcycle style horn”). Loudness is roughly 85–95 dB, and it draws on the order of a few to a dozen-odd watts. Powered from the main battery via a dedicated button on the left grip.
• Combined ringer + horn — on some Inokim and Apollo Phantom models: short press — “ding” of the bell, long press — real horn.

EN 17128:2020 requires for PLEV category an audible warning device per ISO 14878:2015 (the standard for bicycle bells) — a softer bar that allows the plain mechanical bell.

6. Regulatory minimums: EU, UK, US

This is the load-bearing section. Lighting is one of the few categories where the law defines a floor below which sale and use are prohibited.

Germany — eKFV § 5

The complete obligatory lighting set in the 2019 version of the regulation:

1. Front white headlamp (Scheinwerfer) — points to § 67 StVZO for bicycles: a minimum of 10 lux at 10 m, K-number Bauartgenehmigung.
2. Red rear taillight (Schlussleuchte) — steady, not flashing.
3. Red rear reflector — may be housed in the same body as the Schlussleuchte (§ 5 Abs. 1 Satz 3).
4. Side marking — yellow reflectors visible from both sides, or retro-reflective stripes on the wheels (§ 5 Abs. 3).
5. Turn signals (Fahrtrichtungsanzeiger) — optional (“zulässig”) in the 2019 version; after the 2024 eKFV reform turn signals became mandatory for single-track devices (§ 5 Abs. 4 in the new wording).
6. Bell (§ 5 Abs. 1 — helltönende Glocke).

Lighting may be removable — the clause “Die lichttechnischen Einrichtungen dürfen abnehmbar sein” lets the rider detach a lamp while parked to avoid theft. But the lights must be fitted while the vehicle is moving. No “daylight-only” exception exists in the eKFV — lights are on at all times.

United Kingdom — rental trial scooters

The UK Department for Transport keeps trial rental programmes (extended to 31 May 2026) under a lighter regulatory layer. The official gov.uk user guidance does not require the rider to bring their own lighting (rental scooters ship with a headlamp and red rear lamp as standard, activated on every ride). What it does require is one thing — “wear light-coloured or fluorescent clothing so that other road users can see you”. Helmets are recommended but not mandatory.

Privately-owned (non-trial) e-scooters remain illegal on UK public roads and pavements, so there is no formal lighting standard for them — they simply cannot be used.

Europe — EN 17128:2020

EN 17128:2020 is the standard for PLEV (Personal Light Electric Vehicles) ≤ 100 V DC, published on 21 October 2020. It indirectly references:

• ISO 6742-2:2015 — the standard for bicycle-class reflectors. It defines minimum area, viewing angle, and retro-reflective efficiency in mcd/lx/m².
• ISO 14878:2015 — the standard for audible warning devices (bells, horns) on bicycles.

Exact numerical thresholds inside EN 17128 sit behind a paywall, but the general rule is: a PLEV must have front white light + rear red light + rear red reflector + audible warning device. Turn signals are not required by the standard, but they are permitted.

United States — ASTM F2641

ASTM F2641 covers test methods for recreational electric scooters ≤ 32 km/h. It describes the reflectance test methodology for passive reflectors but does not require active lighting on child recreational models. That contrasts sharply with eKFV: Razor E100 ships in the US without any active lighting, but the same unit in Germany would need a full lighting kit to earn a Bauartgenehmigung — which is why the Razor E100 is officially classified as a toy in the EU, not a vehicle.

7. Real-world combinations on popular models

Model	Headlamp	Rear lamp	Turn signals	Horn / bell	Brake-light trigger
Xiaomi M365 / 4 Pro	LED ~150–300 lm	LED + reflector	none	mechanical bell	mechanical lever
Segway-Ninebot MAX G30	LED ~300 lm	LED + brake light	none	mechanical bell	mechanical lever + controller
Apollo City / City Pro	LED ~500–1000 lm	LED strip + brake light	none	mechanical bell	controller on throttle release
Apollo Phantom V2	1000 lm + stem strip	deck LED + brake	yes (rear only)	bell + horn	mechanical lever
NIU KQi2 Pro	300 lm halo	LED brighter	none	mechanical bell	mechanical lever
Mantis King GT	1000 lm	flash brake	yes (all 4 corners)	horn	mechanical lever
SPLACH Titan	1000 lm	flash brake	none	horn	mechanical lever
NAMI Burn-E 2 / Klima	2000 lm	LED + brake	yes	motorcycle horn	mechanical lever
Kaabo Wolf King GT/GTR	2 × 1000 lm	smoked brighter	yes	horn	mechanical lever
Dualtron Storm	standard LED	LED + brake	yes	horn	mechanical lever
Razor E100 (child)	none	reflector only	none	mechanical bell	none
Lime Gen4 / Bird Three (sharing)	always on	always on	none	bell	controller + brake-lever

Note for sharing: Bird Three adds AEB (Autonomous Emergency Braking) and a dual hand-brake system; both operators (Lime + Bird) keep lights permanently on via firmware — the rider cannot turn lights off mid-trip.

Checklist: what to look for in the “lighting” line

1. Headlamp ≥ 300 lm for urban night riding; ≥ 800 lm for off-road and unlit routes.
2. Cut-off lens rather than a symmetric flood — less glare for oncoming, and as a rule noticeably more usable lane length.
3. Brake light that grows brighter, not flashing — fewer chances of being mistaken for a stuck turn signal.
4. Brake-light trigger on both the mechanical lever and the controller — so it lights up under disc braking and regen braking alike.
5. Turn signals — standard on adult performance scooters; a nice-to-have on urban commuters, but an inexpensive aftermarket kit (a few tens of dollars) covers any model without them.
6. Side reflectors or retro-reflective stripe on the wheels — for legal use in the EU this is mandatory (eKFV § 5 Abs. 3).
7. Lateral visibility at eye level — a vertical stem strip light (like on the Apollo Phantom V2) is radically more useful than a low-mounted headlamp when another car is pulling out from an alley.
8. Horn ≥ 85 dB for regular traffic; a mechanical bell is sufficient for pedestrian zones and bike lanes.

Related topics

The citations below are engineering deep-dives and adjacent parts/guide chapters that share §-sections with this article. Each entry names which §-section of this article it attaches to and which §-section of the target article it points at.

• Lighting and visibility engineering: photometry, optics, retroreflection — the full engineering baseline on photometry (CIE 018:2019, CIE 015:2018), beam pattern (UNECE R113/R148/R149), LED thermal degradation (IES TM-21-19, LM-80-08) and retroreflection (CIE 54.2-2001, ASTM E810-22, EN ISO 20471:2013). §1–§4 of this article (lumen, cut-off lens, mounting, taillight) are the user-facing surface of §1–§4 of the lighting-visibility-engineering deep-dive. When this article says “cut-off lens per UN/ECE R113”, the engineering deep-dive supplies the full photometric reasoning.
• Night riding and visibility — §3 of this article (steady glow vs flash brake light, mounting height) feeds §2 of night-riding-visibility (defensive light positioning) and §4 (biomotion contrast under low ambient).
• Riding in fog and reduced visibility — §1–§4 of this article (lumen, beam shape, taillight, side marking) are the precondition for §3 of riding-in-fog (visible contrast in a scattering medium) and §5 (front-fog vs full-beam trade-off on a hump-back).
• Defensive riding in mixed motor traffic — §4 of this article (turn signals, lateral marking) and §7 (eye-level vertical strip light) underpin §2 of defensive-riding (the visibility budget at junctions) and §5 (signalling intent before manoeuvres).
• Pre-ride safety check — §1–§3 of this article (headlamp, taillight, brake light) describe the hardware, while pre-ride-check §2 explains the daily verification ritual (work-light test, brake-lamp test through rear-lever squeeze, indicator function check).
• Safety gear and traffic rules — §6 of this article (eKFV § 5 / EN 17128 / ASTM F2641) is regulatory theory; safety-gear-traffic-rules §1 and §3 cover the practical application in daily riding (helmet+light combo, country-by-country obligation).
• Electric scooter regulations by country — §6 of this article (detailed eKFV/UK/EU/US breakdown) is the vehicle-side technical view; regulations-by-country §2 (DE), §3 (UK), §4 (FR), §5 (IT), §6 (NL), §7 (US states) is the rider-side legal view of the same equation.
• Brakes — disc, drum, regen, eABS — §3 of this article (brake-light trigger via the mechanical brake-lever switch) is the same signal that in parts/brakes §4 starts regenerative braking and in §5 starts the eABS modulator cycle. No brake-lever switch means neither brake light nor eABS — identical hardware dependency.
• Controllers, BMS, electronics — §3 of this article (controller as brake-light trigger on throttle release plus KERS) is a direct sub-system of controllers-bms-electronics §1 (motor controller logic) and §4 (the display UART/CAN through which the “brake light on” command reaches the rear-lamp driver).
• Motors — hub, geared vs direct-drive — §3 of this article (regen-trigger of the brake light) is the same regenerative braking covered in motors §3 (direct-drive KERS regen current) and §5 (geared-hub freewheel — no regen — no controller-side brake-light trigger, the article relies on a manual lever switch).
• Display, throttle, error codes — §3 of this article (brake-light trigger on throttle release) and §6 (light activation through the display) are both application-side aspects of display-throttle deep-dive §1 (display types, UART/CAN command path) and §2 (throttle Hall-sensor reading).
• Anti-lock braking system engineering (eABS) — §3 of this article (mechanical brake-lever switch) is the same sensor input that in the ABS deep-dive §3 (modulator cycle trigger) opens the pressure-release valve; brake light and ABS are two parallel consumers of one signal.
• Connector and wiring harness engineering — §1, §2 and §4 of this article (LED driver, brake-light wiring, turn-signal connectors) are the physical-layer aspect of connector-engineering §2 (waterproof IP67 connector classes) and §4 (gauge selection for current-rated runs).
• Electrical protection and overcurrent engineering — §1 and §5 of this article (LED headlamp 5–15 W plus e-horn 5–15 W as load) are example loads for electrical-protection §2 (fuse sizing) and §4 (PTC self-resetting on light-circuit branches).
• EMC/EMI engineering — §1 and §3 of this article (PWM-driven LED headlamps plus controller signalling) are examples of radiated emissions for EMC §3 (CISPR 25 conducted/radiated) and §4 (UNECE R10 vehicle EMC).
• Sharing electric scooters — the “Lime Gen4 / Bird Three (sharing)” row in §7 of this article illustrates sharing-electric-scooters §3 (firmware-controlled mandatory always-on lights) and §5 (Bird AEB as a deceleration-sensor brake-light trigger).

Sources

These sources are English-first (the primary corpus of technical documentation), Ukrainian-secondary, with no Russian-language materials. Grouped by §-section of the article.

§1. Front headlamp — lumens, beam pattern, optics

1. Wördenweber, Burkard et al. Automotive Lighting and Human Vision. Springer, 2007. ISBN 978-3-540-36696-6. — comprehensive textbook on headlamp photometry, beam pattern, glare physics. The basis of the §1 discussion of cut-off vs flood.
2. CIE. International Commission on Illumination — Standard CIE 018:2019: The Basis of Physical Photometry, 3rd edition. — fundamental photometric standard underlying all lumen measurement.
3. CIE. Standard CIE 015:2018: Colorimetry, 4th edition. — colorimetric basis for the white-light specs of LED headlamps.
4. UNECE. Regulation No. 113 (Rev 3, 2014) — Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Headlamps Emitting a Symmetrical Passing Beam or a Driving Beam or Both and Equipped with Filament, Gas-Discharge Light Sources or LED Modules. — the original cut-off-lens standard that premium e-scooter optics imitate.
5. UNECE. Regulation No. 148:2023 — Light-Signalling Devices. — the light-signalling devices framework for turn signals and brake lights.
6. UNECE. Regulation No. 149:2023 — Road-Illumination Devices. — the road-illumination framework for headlamps on L-class vehicles.
7. IES. Technical Memorandum TM-21-19 — Projecting Long Term Luminous, Photon, and Radiant Flux Maintenance of LED Light Sources. — projection of LED lumen degradation over time, cited by manufacturers for published lumens.
8. IES. Technical Memorandum TM-28-22 — Projecting Long-Term Luminous Flux Maintenance of LED Lamps and Luminaires. — extension of the LM-80/TM-21 framework to full luminaires.
9. IES. Approved Method LM-80-08 — Measuring Lumen Maintenance of LED Light Sources. — the empirical lumen-maintenance test method for LEDs.
10. Schubert, E. Fred. Light-Emitting Diodes. Cambridge University Press, 3rd ed., 2018. ISBN 978-1-107-08732-1. — the foundational textbook on LED physics, drive electronics, and thermal management.
11. Smith, Warren J. Modern Optical Engineering: The Design of Optical Systems. McGraw-Hill, 4th ed., 2007. ISBN 978-0-07-147687-4. — the optical-design reference for projector lenses and cut-off formation.
12. Electric Scooter Insider. Electric Scooter Lights: Best LED Headlight & How to Choose. — practical review of lumen classification and market segmentation.
13. Electric Scooter Insider. I Tested 44 Electric Scooters At Night, These 8 Had the Best Lights. — empirical lumen-output ranking comparison.
14. Apollo Scooters. Apollo Electric Scooter Headlight — product page. — manufacturer technical specs for a retail headlight upgrade.

§2. Rear lamp and red rear reflector

15. ISO. ISO 6742-2:2015 — Cycles — Lighting and Retro-Reflective Devices — Part 2: Retro-Reflective Devices. — the bicycle-class retro-reflector standard, referenced by EN 17128 for PLEV.
16. CIE. Publication 54.2:2001 — Retroreflection: Definition and Measurement, 2nd edition. — fundamental retroreflection physics and measurement geometry.
17. ASTM International. ASTM E810-22 — Standard Test Method for Coefficient of Retroreflection of Retroreflective Sheeting Utilizing the Coplanar Geometry. — coplanar-geometry retroreflection test.
18. CEN. EN 13356:2001 — Visibility Accessories for Non-Professional Use. — EU retroreflective marker standard defining minimum coefficient of retroreflection (RA) and area for cyclist/pedestrian visibility.
19. Tyrrell, Richard A. Conspicuity, Visual Search and Driver Safety. — Clinical and Experimental Optometry, vol. 99, no. 5, 2016. DOI: 10.1111/cxo.12447 — peer-reviewed survey of biomotion and retroreflection effectiveness for the PLEV class.
20. Wood, J.M. Drivers’ Ability to Detect Pedestrians at Night Is Improved by Reflective Markers and the Use of Headlights. — Human Factors, vol. 47, no. 3, 2005. DOI: 10.1518/001872005774860019 — QUT seminal biomotion study.
21. § 67 StVZO. Lichttechnische Einrichtungen an Fahrrädern. — German bicycle-lighting baseline imported by eKFV § 5 for e-scooters.
22. Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen (BASt). Anforderungen an die lichttechnischen Einrichtungen für Elektrokleinstfahrzeuge. — German federal road-research-institute brief on the technical interpretation of eKFV § 5.

§3. Brake light — steady vs flash + trigger sensors

23. UNECE. Regulation No. 78 (Rev 3, 2017) — Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Vehicles of Category L With Regard to Braking. — UN braking standard for L1e with brake-light interlock requirements.
24. SAE International. SAE J586:2020 — Stop Lamps for Use on Motor Vehicles Less Than 2032 mm in Overall Width. — the automotive stop-lamp photometric specification copied by premium e-scooter brake lights.
25. Apollo Scooters. Electric Scooter Regenerative Braking Systems Explained. — manufacturer educational article on the regen-trigger sequence and its brake-light interaction.
26. Voigtländer, Tibor et al. Effects of Flashing Brake Lights and Increased Brake-Light Conspicuity. — Accident Analysis & Prevention, vol. 70, 2014. DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2014.04.006 — peer-reviewed survey of the reaction-time delta between steady and flashing brake lights.
27. NHTSA. Enhanced Brake Lights and Their Effect on Driver Perception. US Department of Transportation Research Report DOT HS 808 286. — federal study on the pulsed/steady brake-light contrast and pedestrian reaction.
28. Electric Scooter Insider. Apollo Phantom Review. — practical review of brake-light steady-glow behaviour.
29. eRideHero. Apollo Phantom V2 Electric Scooter Review. — independent review with brake-light + KERS coupling description.
30. Fluid Free Ride. Apollo Phantom — product page. — retailer technical spec sheet with brake-light trigger configuration.

§4. Turn signals and lateral visibility

31. UNECE. Regulation No. 6 (Rev 7, 2017) — Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Direction Indicators for Power-Driven Vehicles and Their Trailers. — UN turn-signal standard, sets the 1.5 Hz (90 cycles/min) flash frequency and minimum photometric values.
32. SAE International. SAE J588:2019 — Turn Signal Lamps for Use on Motor Vehicles Less Than 2032 mm in Overall Width. — automotive turn-signal photometric specification.
33. CEN. EN ISO 20471:2013 — High Visibility Clothing — Test Methods and Requirements. — EU high-visibility clothing standard, the basis for the side-marking class on PLEVs.
34. Electric Scooter Insider. NAMI Burn-E 2 Review. — practical review of turn-signal placement and lateral visibility.
35. Electric Scooter Insider. NAMI Klima Review. — supplementary description of the turn signal/horn.
36. RiderGuide. NAMI Klima Review. — independent review including analysis of the deck under-glow LED side marking.
37. Fluid Free Ride. NAMI Burn-E 2 — product page. — retailer spec sheet including side LED strip dimensioning.

§5. Bell and horn

38. ISO. ISO 14878:2015 — Cycles — Acoustic Warning Devices. — bicycle-bell standard, referenced by EN 17128 for PLEV audible warning devices.
39. UNECE. Regulation No. 28 (Rev 1, 2007) — Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Audible Warning Devices and of Motor Vehicles with Regard to Their Audible Signals. — UN horn standard for L1e+ (motorcycles).
40. SAE International. SAE J377:2017 — Performance of Vehicle Traffic Horns. — automotive horn dB(A) and frequency-band performance test.
41. Levy Electric. Compare the Segway Ninebot Max and the Xiaomi M365 Pro. — comparison table with horn/bell variants per model.

§6. Regulations — DE / UK / EU / US

42. § 5 eKFV — Anforderungen an die lichttechnischen Einrichtungen. — German Elektrokleinstfahrzeuge-Verordnung, original text.
43. eKFV — full Verordnung (gesetze-im-internet.de). — full text of the eKFV with all paragraphs.
44. Buzer.de. § 5 eKFV — full text. — alternative public-text mirror.
45. Deutsche Verkehrswacht. Novelle der Elektrokleinstfahrzeuge-Verordnung — 2024 reform overview. — overview of the 2024 eKFV reform that made Fahrtrichtungsanzeiger mandatory for single-track devices.
46. UK Department for Transport / GOV.UK. Using a Rental E-Scooter — Guidance. — UK official rider guidance for trial-rental fleets.
47. UK Department for Transport / GOV.UK. Rental E-Scooter Trials. — full DfT publication on the trial programme’s technical requirements.
48. UK Department for Transport / GOV.UK. The Highway Code. — mandatory traffic rules including visibility provisions.
49. iTeh Standards. BS EN 17128:2020 — PLEV Requirements and Test Methods. — European PLEV standard, sets the front white + rear red + reflector + audible warning floor.
50. EN-Standard.eu. BS EN 17128:2020 — catalogue. — alternative catalogue listing with ToC overview.
51. ASTM International. ASTM F2641 — Standard Specification for Powered Scooters. — US recreational e-scooter standard, describes passive reflector test methodology with no active-lighting requirement for the toy class.
52. Electroheads. Are Electric Scooters Legal? UK Law Explained. — UK practitioner summary on private vs trial-rental status.

§7. Market combinations — popular models

53. Niu Technologies. KQi2 Pro — Specifications. — manufacturer official spec sheet (300 lm halo headlight).
54. Segway-Ninebot. Ninebot KickScooter MAX G30 — Specifications. — manufacturer official spec sheet (rear lamp + brake light combined).
55. Apollo Scooters. Apollo City — Specifications. — manufacturer spec sheet (LED stripe + brake light).
56. Kaabo USA. Wolf King GT — Specifications. — manufacturer spec sheet with dual 2 × 1000 lm headlight and smoked taillight.
57. Dualtron / Minimotors. Storm Limited — Specifications. — manufacturer spec sheet with deck-mounted turn-signal arrays.
58. Lime. Lime Gen4 — Technical Overview. — Lime official on the Gen4 always-on lighting via firmware.
59. Bird Rides Inc. Bird Three — World’s Most Eco-Conscious Scooter, Launch Post. — Bird official on AEB plus always-on lighting architecture.
60. Razor USA. E100 Electric Scooter — Owner’s Manual. — US-market spec sheet (no active lights, reflector-only — ASTM F2641 toy-class evidence).